National borders cannot limit wildfire smoke originating in the Indonesian regions of Kalimantan (Borneo), Papua and Sumatra.
The toxic smog, carried by winds toward neighboring Singapore and Malaysia, has affected populations across maritime Southeast Asia over the past few weeks, causing respiratory illnesses and headaches.
But it also creates another kind of political headache for governments in the region. On the one hand, the government must face growing public dissatisfaction, and on the other hand, it must avoid a deterioration in diplomatic relations with Indonesia.
Eugene Tan, associate professor of law at Singapore Management University, told the BBC: "People are fed up, angry and anxious."
“The government must respond, otherwise what was originally an external problem will become an internal problem and there will be a lot of room for politicization.”
Wildfires occur almost every year in Indonesia and are generally thought to be related to large-scale land clearing to plant crops such as oil palm.
But this year's fires have been particularly difficult to control as the strong El Niño phenomenon has exacerbated drought conditions in Indonesia's forests and peatlands.
Previous smog events in Singapore and Malaysia usually lasted only a few days, but this time they lasted for weeks.
In Malaysia, local people launched a boycott of Indonesian products to protest the smog problem. Earlier, MP Syed Saddiq called for sanctions on businesses linked to the wildfires, saying Malaysians should "treat them as pariahs in the region".
There are also voices of dissatisfaction in Singapore.
The people of this country have always been accustomed to efficient and seamless governance performance by the government.
Chen Qingwen said: "Some people seem to think that the government has failed to deal with the smog problem, because people have long known that the El Niño weather phenomenon will be very serious, and have also received advance warning."
"It's clear that Singaporeans expect the government to deal decisively with those who pollute."
diplomatic dilemma
The Singaporean government has made it clear that the smog issue is a current priority.
Hundreds of smog evacuation centers have been set up across the island, and masks are being distributed to children, the elderly and other vulnerable residents.
The authorities also said they are considering strengthening existing smoke-related laws and are investigating 10 companies registered in Singapore to learn whether they are related to the Indonesian wildfires.
Last week, Singapore's Foreign Minister Vivian Balakrishnan met with Indonesian President Prabowo Subianto in Jakarta. Vivian described the two sides as having had "frank" and "sincere" exchanges and putting forward "constructive solutions."
Before the meeting, the two countries announced that they would set up a joint working group to deal with the smog issue. The move was seen as a sign of thawing in bilateral relations after weeks of tension over the smog issue.
As the smog has turned into yet another crisis for Prabowo's government, some officials are pushing back against criticism.
One of the senior officials' remarks sparked controversy. He said the wildfires were beyond human control and that the oxygen breathed by neighboring Singapore and Malaysia "comes from our forests".
Singapore's State Counselor K Shanmugam called the remarks "disappointing" and "inappropriate". It was a rare public rebuke for Singapore, which has always been known for its diplomacy.
"The smoke is seriously affecting our health and that is completely unacceptable," Shanmugam told reporters, adding that there should not be "any bilateral issues" in dealing with the issue as the smoke affected people on both sides of the border.
"Indonesian people are also suffering, and it is in Indonesia's interest and ours to deal with the companies that are causing these problems," he said.
Days later, Indonesia announced it would cut natural gas exports to Singapore, citing increased domestic energy demand. Many believed the move was a response to Singapore-related remarks.
It is true that some areas in Indonesia have recently faced power shortages. Singapore also stated that the gas supply cut this time accounts for less than 2% of its total daily demand and will have little impact on natural gas supply.
But the sudden announcement of the measure came just days after Indonesia's energy minister warned that it might stop natural gas exports to countries that "disrespect Indonesia." On the same day, when talking about the wildfire issue, Prabowo also mentioned some countries that "like to insult Indonesia."
"This is a tired old script that portrays Singapore as a scapegoat, and behind it is the 'abang-adik' (big brother-little brother) mentality," said Tan Keng Boon.
He was referring to a long-standing historical relationship in which Singapore's leaders have tried to shake off expectations that it should make concessions to its larger neighbor.
"Singapore's leaders expressed concern about the smog issue and its impact on the people of both countries, but it was interpreted as Singapore disrespecting its neighbours," he said.
Waiting for the wind to change
In contrast, Malaysian officials have been relatively restrained in their stance on the smog issue.
Malaysian Foreign Minister Mohamad Hasan has ruled out filing a formal diplomatic protest or taking legal action against Indonesia, saying doing so "means we are prepared to sever bilateral ties".
Currently, Malaysia has agreed to explore signing a memorandum of understanding with Indonesia to strengthen wildfire prevention efforts.
Mohd also said that Malaysia will rely on diplomatic mechanisms to deal with the problem, such as the ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution.
The agreement, which came into effect in 2003, commits members of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) to cooperate in dealing with periodic smog problems.
But many believe the pact lacks practical binding power because it cannot punish agricultural businesses linked to wildfires or force individual governments to take action.
James Chin, professor of Asian studies at the University of Tasmania, said the agreement turned out to be "not worth the paper it was signed on".
Malaysia itself has been affected by severe smoke caused by fires on many occasions.
Ei Sun Oh, chief consultant at the Pacific Research Center of Malaysia, said: "As long as we still attach great importance to the oil palm plantation industry, (the smoke) will recur."
Hu Yishan said that currently Malaysia “does not want to over-stimulate Indonesia.”
"The government is just sitting there waiting for the wind to blow (the problem) away. Because eventually the wind will blow it away," he said.
